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Jumat, 11 September 2009

MARAUDERS


B-26 Marauder
A US Army Air Forces B-26B with D-Day invasion stripes
Role Medium bomber
National origin United States
Manufacturer Glenn L. Martin Company
First flight 25 November 1940
Introduced 1941
Status Retired
Primary users United States Army Air Forces
United States Army Air Corps
Royal Air Force
South African Air Force
Produced 1941–1945
Number built 5,288[1]
Unit cost $102,659.33/B-26A[2]

The Martin B-26 Marauder was a World War II twin-engine medium bomber built by the Glenn L. Martin Company.

The first US medium bomber used in the Pacific Theater in early 1942, it was also used in the Mediterranean Theater and in Western Europe. The plane distinguished itself as "the chief bombardment weapon on the Western Front" according to an United States Army Air Forces dispatch from 1946,[citation needed] and later variants maintained the lowest loss record of any combat aircraft during World War II. Its late-war loss record stands in sharp contrast to its unofficial nickname "The Widowmaker" — earned due to early models' high rate of accidents during takeoff.

A total of 5,288 were produced between February 1941 and March 1945; 522 of these were flown by the Royal Air Force and the South African Air Force.

Contents

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[edit] Design and development

In March 1939, the United States Army Air Corps issued Circular Proposal 39-640, a specification for a twin-engined medium bomber. Six months later, Glenn L. Martin Company was awarded a contract for 201 planes. This design, Martin Model 179, was accepted for production before a prototype even flew. The B-26 went from paper concept to working plane in approximately two years. The lead designer was Peyton M. Magruder.

Closeup view of Martin B-26C in flight.

Once the first aircraft came off the production line in November 1940, Martin conducted tests, the results of which were promising. The first B-26, with Martin test pilot William K. "Ken" Ebel at the controls, flew on 25 November 1940 and was effectively the prototype. Deliveries to the U.S. Army Air Corps began in February 1941 with the second plane, 40-1362. In March 1941, the Army Air Corps started Accelerated Service Testing of the B-26 at Patterson Field, Ohio.

The Martin electric turret was retrofitted to some of the first B-26s. Martin began testing a taller vertical stabilizer and revised tail gunner's position in 1941.

[edit] Accidents

 This section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (October 2008)

While the B-26 was a fast plane with better performance than the contemporary B-25 Mitchell, its relatively small wing area and resulting high wing loading (the highest of any aircraft used at that time) required an unprecedented landing speed (120-135 mph/193-217 km/h indicated airspeed depending on load). At least two of the earliest B-26s suffered hard landings and damage to the main landing gear, engine mounts, propellers and fuselage. The type was grounded briefly in April 1941 to investigate the landing difficulties. Two causes were found: insufficient landing speed (producing a stall) and improper weight distribution. The latter was due to the lack of a dorsal turret; the Martin power turret was not ready yet.

Some of the very earliest B-26s suffered collapses of the nose landing gear. It is said that they were caused by improper weight distribution but that is probably not the only reason. They occurred during low-speed taxiing, takeoffs and landings. Occasionally the strut unlocked.

The Pratt & Whitney R-2800 engines were reliable but the Curtiss electric pitch change mechanism in the propellers required impeccable maintenance. Human error and some failures of the mechanism occasionally placed the propeller blades in flat pitch and resulted in an overspeeding propeller, sometimes known as a "runaway prop". Due to its sound and the possibility that the propeller blades could disintegrate, this situation was particularly frightening for aircrews. More challenging was a loss of power in one engine during takeoff. These and other malfunctions, as well as human error, claimed a number of planes and the commanding officer of the 22nd Bombardment Group, Col. Mark Lewis.

The Martin B-26 suffered only two fatal accidents during its first year of flights, November 1940-November 1941: a crash shortly after takeoff near Martin's Middle River plant (cause unknown but engine malfunction strongly suggested) and the loss of a 38th Bombardment Group plane when its vertical stabilizer and rudder separated from the plane at altitude (cause unknown, but accident report discussed the possibility that a canopy hatch broke off and struck the vertical stabilizer).

The B-26 was not an airplane for novices. Unfortunately, due to the need to quickly train many pilots for the war, a number of relatively inexperienced pilots got into the cockpit and the accident rate increased accordingly. This occurred at the same time as more experienced B-26 pilots of the 22nd, 38th and 42nd Bombardment Groups were proving the merits of the airplane.

For a time in 1942, pilots in training believed that the B-26 could not be flown on one engine. This was disproved by a number of experienced pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle.

In 1942, Senator Harry Truman was a leading member of the Senate Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program (the so-called Truman Committee), which was investigating defense contracting abuses. When Truman and other committee members arrived at the Avon Park Army Air Field in Florida, they were greeted by the still-burning wreckage of two crashed B-26s. Truman criticized both Glenn L. Martin and the B-26. Indeed, the regularity of crashes by pilots training at nearby MacDill Field—up to fifteen in one 30-day period—led to the only mildly exaggerated catchphrase, "One a day in Tampa Bay."

The B-26 received the nickname "Widowmaker". Other colorful nicknames included "Martin Murderer", "Flying Coffin", "B-Dash-Crash", "Flying Prostitute" (so-named because it had "no visible means of support," referring to its small wings) and "Baltimore Whore" (a reference to the city where Martin was based).[3]

The B-26 is said[who?] to have had the lowest combat loss rate of any U.S. aircraft used during the war. Nevertheless, it remained a challenging plane to fly and continued to be unpopular with some pilots throughout its military career.

[edit] Operational history

B-26 flying over its target during World War II.

The B-26 Marauder was used mostly in Europe but also saw action in the Mediterranean and the Pacific. In early combat the aircraft took heavy losses but was still one of the most successful medium-range bombers used by the U.S. Army Air Forces.[4]

In September 1940, the Army Air Corps ordered 1,131 B-26s. The airplane began flying combat missions in the Southwest Pacific in the spring of 1942, but most of the B-26s subsequently assigned to operational theaters were sent to England and the Mediterranean area.

Bombing from medium altitudes of 10,000-15,000 ft (3,048-4,572 m), the Marauder had the lowest loss rate of any Allied bomber - less than ½%. By the end of World War II, it had flown more than 110,000 sorties and had dropped 150,000 tons (136,078 tonnes) of bombs, and had been used in combat by British, Free French and South African forces in addition to U.S. units. In 1945, when B-26 production was halted, 5,266 had been built.[5]

The B-26 was phased out of US Army Air Forces service before the end of the war. Its last mission was flown in May 1945. According to an article in the April edition of AOPA Pilot on Kermit Weeks' "Fantasy of Flight", the Marauder had a tendency to "hunt" in yaw. This instability is similar to "Dutch roll". This would make for a very uncomfortable ride, especially for the tail gunner.

[edit] Variants

The development of the B-26 in illustrated form.
U.S. Army Air Forces B-26B bomber in flight.
  • B-26 - The first produced model of the B-26, ordered based upon design alone.[6] The armament on this model consisted of two .30 inches (7.62 mm) and two .50 inches (12.7 mm) machine guns. (The last model was armed with nearly three times that number.) Approximate pcost then: $80,226.80/plane.
  • B-26A - Incorporated changes made on the production line to the B-26, including upgrading the two .30 inches (7.62 mm) machine guns in the nose and tail to .50 inches (12.7 mm).[2] A total of 52 B-26As were sent to the United Kingdom, which were used as the Marauder Mk I. Approximate cost then: $102,659.33/aircraft (×139)
  • B-26B - Model with further improvements on the B-26A.[7] Nineteen were sent to the United Kingdom, which were used as the Marauder Mk.IA. Production blocks of the 1883 planes built:
    • AT-23A or TB-26B - 208 B-26Bs converted into target tugs and gunnery trainers designated JM-1 by the Navy.
    • B-26B—Single tail gun replaced with twin gun; belly-mounted "tunnel-gun" added. (×81)
    • B-26B-1 - Improved B-26B. (×225)
    • B-26B-2 - Pratt & Whitney R-2800-41 radials. (×96)
    • B-26B-3 - Larger carburetor intakes; upgrade to R-2800-43 radials. (×28)
    • B-26B-4 - Improved B-26B-3. (×211)
    • B-26B-10 through B-26B-55 - Beginning with block 10, the wingspan was increased from 65 feet (20 m) to 71 feet (22 m), to improve handling problems during landing caused by a high wing load; flaps were added outboard of the engine nacelles for this purpose also. The vertical stabiliser height was increased from 19 feet 10 inches (6.0 m) to 21 feet 6 inches (6.6 m). The armament was increased from six to 12 .50 inches (12.7 mm) machine guns; this was done in the forward section so that the B-26 could perform strafing missions. The tail gun was upgraded from manual to power operated. Armor was added to protect the pilot and copilot. (×1242)
    • CB-26B - 12 B-26Bs were converted into transport aircraft (all were delivered to the US Marine Corps for use in the Philippines).
  • B-26C - Designation assigned to those B-26Bs built in Omaha, Nebraska instead of Baltimore, Maryland.[8] Although nominally the B-26B-10 was the first variant to receive the longer wing, it was actually installed on B-26Cs before the B-26B-10, both being in production simultaneously. 123 B-26Cs were used by the RAF as the Marauder Mk II. Approximate cost then: $138,551.27/plane (×1210)
    • TB-26C—Originally designated AT-23B. Trainer modification of B-26C. (×>300)
  • XB-26D - Modified B-26 used to test hot air de-icing equipment, in which heat exchangers transferred heat from engine exhaust to air circulated to the leading and trailing edges of the wing and empennage surfaces.[9] This system, while promising, was not incorporated into any production aircraft made during World War II. (×1, converted)
  • B-26E - Modified B-26B constructed to test the effectiveness of moving the dorsal gun turret from the aft fuselage to just behind the cockpit.[10] The offensive and defensive abilities of the B-26E was tested against in combat simulations against normal aircraft. Although test showed that gains were made with the new arrangement, the gain was insignificant. After a cost analysis, it was concluded that the effort needed to convert production lines to the B-26E arrangement was not worth the effort. (×1, converted)
  • B-26F - Angle of incidence of wings increased by 3.5º; fixed .50 inches (12.7 mm) machine gun in nose removed; tail turret and associated armour improved.[11] The first B-26F was produced in February 1944. One hundred of these were B-26F-1-MAs. Starting with 42-96231, a revised oil cooler was added, along with wing bottom panels redesigned for easier removal. A total of 200 of the 300 planes were B-26F-2s and F-6s, all of which were used by the RAF as the Marauder Mk III. The Marauder III carried the RAF serials HD402 through HD601 (ex-USAAF serials 42-96329 through 96528). The F-2 had the Bell M-6 power turret replaced by an M-6A with a flexible canvas cover over the guns. The T-1 bombsight was installed instead of the M-series sight. British bomb fusing and radio equipment were provided. (×300)
  • B-26G - B-26F with standardised interior equipment.[12] A total of 150 bombers were used by the RAF as the Marauder Mk III. (×893)
    • TB-26G - B-26G converted for crew training. Most, possibly all, were delivered to the United States Navy as the JM-2. (×57)
  • XB-26H - Test aircraft for tandem landing gear, and nicknamed the "Middle River Stump Jumper" from its "bicycle" gear configuration, to see if it could be used on the Martin XB-48.[13] (×1, converted)
  • JM-1P - A small number of JM-1s were converted into photo-reconnaissance aircraft.

[edit] Operators

Main article: List of units using the B-26 Marauder during World War II
WASPs on flightline at Laredo Army Air Field, Texas, 22 January 1944.
France
South Africa
United Kingdom
United States

[edit] Survivors

  • B-26B, part of the Fantasy of Flight collection in Polk City, Florida.
  • B-26G (s/n 43-34581) is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. This aircraft was flown in combat by the Free French during the final months of World War II. It was obtained from the French airline Air France training school near Paris in June 1965. It is painted as a 9th Air Force B-26B assigned to the 387th Bomb Group in 1945.[14]
  • B-26G-25-MA (s/n 44-68219) is on display at the Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace in Le Bourget, France. It was also recovered from the Air France training school.[15]
  • B-26 on display in Marietta, Georgia. Provenance unknown.
  • B-26B-25-MA (s/n 41-31773) "Flak Bait." The nose section is on display at the National Air and Space Museum, Washington DC. The remainder (mid and tail fuselage sections, wings, engines, and empennage) are stored at NASM's Paul E. Garber facility in Suitland MD. This aircraft survived 207 operational missions over Europe, more than any other American aircraft during World War II and will, one day, be restored and displayed at NASM's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center at Dulles International Airport VA.

[edit] Specifications (B-26G)

Martin B-26G Marauder at the National Museum of the United States Air Force.

Data from Quest for Performance[16] and Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II[17]

General characteristics

  • Crew: 7: (2 pilots, bombardier, navigator/radio operator, 3 gunners)
  • Length: 58 ft 3 in (17.8 m)
  • Wingspan: 71 ft 0 in (21.65 m)
  • Height: 21 ft 6 in (6.55 m)
  • Wing area: 658 ft2 (61.1 m2)
  • Empty weight: 24,000 lb (11,000 kg)
  • Loaded weight: 37,000 lb (17,000 kg)
  • Powerplant: 2× Pratt & Whitney R-2800-43 radial engines, 1,900 hp (1,400 kW) each

Performance

Armament

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Selasa, 08 September 2009

SBD DAUNTLESS, DIVE BOMBER THAT COULD CHANGE THE DESTINY

* World War II was the era of the "dive bomber", an attack aircraft designed to perform precision bombing of targets by diving down on them at a steep angle. Dive bombing was particularly attractive for attacking rapidly moving naval vessels that were taking evasive action. The most prominent American contribution to dive-bomber design was the Douglas "SBD Dauntless", which helped the US score major naval victories against the Japanese in the early days of the Pacific War. Although the Dauntless was somewhat antiquated, it was rugged and reliable, and proved an excellent weapon in the hands of aircrews who knew how to use it.

The obsolescent nature of the Dauntless was understood even before Pearl Harbor, and so work was begun on what was hoped to be an improved successor, the Curtiss "SB2C Helldiver". In fact, the Helldiver proved a disappointment, less effective in many critical respects than the Dauntless and much less liked by aircrews, and the Helldiver would not long outlive the Dauntless in operational service. This document provides a history and description of the Dauntless and the Helldiver.

[1] DAUNTLESS ORIGINS
[2] SBD-1 / SBD-2 / SBD-3
[3] DAUNTLESS IN COMBAT 1941:1942
[4] SBD-4 / SBD-5 / SBD-6
[5] OTHER DAUNTLESS USERS
[6] SB2C HELLDIVER ORIGINS
[7] SB2C VARIANTS
[8] COMMENTS, SOURCES, & REVISION HISTORY

[1] DAUNTLESS ORIGINS

* Northrop Corporation had been founded in El Segundo, California, in 1932 by John Northrop, an employee of Douglas Aircraft, but it wasn't exactly a parting of the ways between Northrop and Douglas, since Douglas provided him with backing and retained ownership over the Northrop firm. The relationship between Northrop and Douglas was good for a time, with Northrop making a splash with advanced aircraft designs, such as the fast Gamma mailplane.

In 1934, the US Navy Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer) issued a request for a dive bomber, with Northrop and senior engineer Edward H. Heinemann submitting a design that was accepted over the competition, the Navy ordering a single prototype under the designation of "XBT-1" -- the "B" for standing for "bomber" and the "T" (somehow) for "Northrop". Initial flight of the prototype was on 19 August 1935, with the aircraft powered by a Pratt & Whitney (P&W) R-1535-66 Twin Wasp Junior two-row radial engine, providing 520 kW (700 HP) and driving a two-bladed propeller. The XBT-1 was refitted with an R-1535-94 Twin Wasp with 615 kW (825 HP) in December 1935.

In September 1936, the Navy ordered 54 production "BT-1s", with 53 actually delivered. The BT-1 was a "taildragger", with semi-retractable main gear that hinged backwards into fairings under the wings, and a fixed tailwheel. The original design had featured "split flaps" for dive braking, with the flaps extending above and below the wing. These flaps were modified with an array of holes in the production BT-1s, and the "Swiss cheese" flaps would remain a distinctive feature of the entire aircraft line. The BT-1 also differed from the XBT-1 in having a larger, rounded tailfin, and a modified cowling.

The BT-1 proved highly unsatisfactory in service, being underpowered and suffering from nasty handling characteristics, but the Navy didn't give up on Northrop. The 54th BT-1 was actually completed as the "XBT-2", with a more powerful engine and other changes. In its initial configuration, the XBT-2 performed its first flight on 25 April 1938, only to still prove disappointing. The aircraft was flown to Langley, Virginia, to be tested in a big wind tunnel operated by the US National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA, the main predecessor of the modern National Aviation & Space Administration, NASA). After the tests, the aircraft went through an extensive redesign.

By this time, Northrop had quit the company to form another, of course being named Northrop Aircraft once more, with the "old" Northrop company reverting to Douglas control as the "El Segundo" division. The drastically modified XBT-2 prototype, which had only the most general resemblance to the old BT-1, was accepted by the US Navy in 1939, with a production order placed in February of that year for 144 aircraft, to be designated "SBD-1" -- the "SB" standing for "scout bomber" and the "D" of course for "Douglas". Initial service deliveries of the "Dauntless", as it had been named, were in late 1940.

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[2] SBD-1 / SBD-2 / SBD-3

* The Dauntless was a two seat, low wing monoplane. Oddly for a carrier aircraft, it did not have folding wings, the decision having been made to design the wing for structural strength in a way that precluded a wingfold. The wing's outboard panels had a noticeable dihedral, though the tailplane was flat. Control surface arrangement was generally conventional -- ailerons, elevators, rudder, all fabric-covered -- except for large metal flaps, split inboard and outboard, with the outboard section also having a top flap that could be hinged out along with the bottom flap to act as a dive brake. The flaps were all of the "Swiss cheese" configuration. The perforations reduced buffet on a dive and permitted wider extension of the dive brakes, improving braking effect.

The Dauntless was a "taildragger", with the main gear hinged in the wings to retract in towards the fuselage, and with a fixed tailwheel. The pilot and rear gunner / radio operator sat in tandem, the back-seater facing the rear, with the canopy sections sliding towards the center to open.

The Dauntless could carry up to a 725 kilogram (1,600 pound) bomb on a swinging release cradle under the fuselage, and also had a pylon for a single 45 kilogram (100 pound) bomb or other relatively small store under each wing. The release cradle allowed the bomb to clear the propeller during a dive attack. The cradle was not used in level attack, the bomb being dropped directly in that case.

The Dauntless had two 12.7 millimeter (0.50 caliber) Browning machine guns fixed in the top of the nose cowling and firing through the propeller using synchronizing gear. The receivers of the guns protruded into the cockpit, giving the pilot some ability to clear jams. There was also a single hand-held 7.62 (0.30 caliber) Browning on a rear-facing flexible mount, with this weapon handled by the back-seater. The rear gun was stowed underneath doors on the fuselage behind the cockpit when not in use. An antique-looking telescopic sight was used to aim the guns and for dive-bombing attacks.

The SBD-1 was powered by a Wright R-1820-32 Cyclone 9-cylinder air-cooled radial with 745 kW (1,000 HP), driving a three-bladed adjustable-pitch propeller with a spinner. The SBD-1 had a distinctive "fat" carburetor inlet at the top of the engine cowling, and also carried flotation gear for ditching at sea. It had four internal fuel tanks in the wing center section with a total capacity of 796 liters (210 US gallons) -- including two main tanks with 341 liters (90 US gallons) each, and two auxiliary tanks with 57 liters (15 US gallons) each. With bombload, this restricted the operational radius to a mere 370 kilometers (200 NMI). The Navy was not happy about the short range, nor about the fact that the SBD-1 lacked armor.

Douglas was working on improvements and so the Navy decided to accept the first 57 of the initial order for 144 as was, with production flowing to the improved "SBD-2" with the 58th machine. The SBD-2 still lacked armor, but the fuel capacity was increased, with the two main tanks retained, the auxiliary tanks removed, and a 246 liter (65 US gallon) tank added to each outer wing panel to provide a total fuel capacity of 1,175 liters (310 US gallons). Range was proportionately increased, but takeoff weight necessarily increased as well, and one of the Brownings in the cowling was often removed in the field.

The SBD-2 also featured an autopilot; the carburetor intake was reduced in size, giving the aircraft a somewhat more modern appearance. The SBD-2s were not everything that was wanted, but the Navy still accepted the remaining 87 aircraft of the initial order in this configuration. Incidentally, there is a common belief that the Marines tend to be on the back end of the US military procurement queue; Marines will on occasion object to this suggestion, but it should be noted that all the SBD-1s were passed on the USMC while the Navy retained the SBD-2s. The initial SBD color scheme was light gray overall, this being changed to light gray underneath and medium blue gray on top. Prewar national insignia featured a five-pointed star with a red "meatball" in the center.

* Neither the SBD-1 nor SBD-2 were really acceptable for combat. The first Dauntless that was up to being sent into action was the "SBD-3", which ironically was produced for the Aeronavale, the French Navy's air arm. 174 were ordered by the French, but with the fall of France in the spring of 1940 that production batch was picked up by the US Navy, which ordered 410 more, for a total of 584.

The SBD-3 seemed almost identical to the SBD-2 externally, but featured crew and fuel system armor protection, plus an armored windscreen. The internal fuel tanks were all self-sealing, and provided a fuel supply of 985 liters (260 US gallons). The SBD-3 was fitted with an R-1820-53 engine, with the same power output as the older R-1820-32 but with some technical improvements. The cowling configuration was modified slightly.

Some sources claim that the SBD-1 and SBD-2 actually had 7.62 millimeter Brownings in the cowling and that the 12.7 millimeter Brownings were actually introduced in the SBD-3. The single 7.62 millimeter rear gun was often updated in the field to a double mount, with an improved double gun system with a power-boosted ring mount introduced late in SBD-3 production. The new production rear gun fit eliminated the rear-fuselage doors for stowage of the rear guns in favor of sliding panels.

Although efforts were made to decrease weight, for example through elimination of the flotation gear and use of lighter airframe components, the empty weight of the SBD-3 was 2,800 kilograms (6,180 pounds), versus the 2,505 kilograms (5,525 pounds) of the SBD-1 and SBD-2. However, performance only suffered slightly.

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[3] DAUNTLESS IN COMBAT 1941:1942

* The Marines started to receive SBD-1s in June 1940, and by the time the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) attacked on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, it was being flown by "Marine Air Group (MAG) 11" and MAG 21. MAG 21 was stationed in Hawaii and its Dauntlesses were shot up on the ground during the Pearl Harbor attack, with 17 destroyed and the remaining 12 badly damaged.

On the same day, the carrier USS ENTERPRISE was approaching Pearl Harbor, with Navy SBD-2s scouting the approaches, only to run into the Japanese. Seven SBD-2s were shot down or beat up so badly that they had to crash-land, though they claimed two kills of their own. Surviving Navy SBDs hunted for the Japanese fleet over the following days, but the IJN had made a clean getaway. However, on 10 December a Dauntless claimed the sinking of the IJN submarine I-70. The SBD had drawn its first blood.

In early 1942, the US Navy conducted a series of hit-and-run raids on Japanese bases in the Pacific. They were intended to bolster civilian morale and hopefully throw the Japanese off balance. The "revenge raids" caused little harm but substantial irritation to the Japanese, and they provided combat experience to Navy crews that would come in useful when the time came to take serious action against the enemy. One change resulting from these early operations was the elimination of the red "meatball" in the middle of the US national insignia since it tended to look like a Japanese "rising sun" from a distance, leading to "friendly-fire" problems.

In early May 1942, US Navy signals intelligence revealed that the Japanese were planning an amphibious assault against Port Moresby in southern New Guinea, increasing the threat to Australia. A US Navy task force built around the carriers LEXINGTON and YORKTOWN moved to block the Japanese. On 7 May 1942, Dauntlesses sank the light carrier SHOHO, resulting in the excited report: "Scratch one flattop!" However, the next day the Japanese got the better of the match, sinking the LEXINGTON and damaging the YORKTOWN, though the SBDs badly damaged the heavy carrier SHOKAKU in return. Both sides also lost smaller vessels and numbers of planes, with the Japanese suffering greater aerial losses.

The results of the Battle of the Coral Sea, as the confrontation became known in the history books, gave the Japanese a clear but not overwhelming tactical victory -- though they believed, with some reason, that they had sunk both the LEXINGTON and YORKTOWN and were very enthusiastic about the results of the clash. However, the Americans, who had been losing badly in general since the beginning of the war in the Pacific, were encouraged at getting into a fight with the IJN and hurting the Japanese almost as badly as the Japanese had hurt them. In any case, the Japanese operation against Port Moresby was called off, making the battle a clear strategic win for the Americans.

* The IJN had enough of putting up with annoyances and confrontations with the Americans, and planned a "decisive battle" that would knock the US Navy out of the Pacific once and for all. Masked by a diversionary operation to the Aleutians in the far North Pacific, a major Japanese fleet would lure the Americans into battle near Midway Island in the Central Pacific and destroy them.

Fortunately, US Navy signals intelligence was once again a step ahead of the IJN, and a task force built around the hastily-repaired YORKTOWN, as well as the ENTERPRISE and HORNET, was ready for them. On 4 June, the Americans found the Japanese fleet first, with an attack by Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers being badly slaughtered. However, the Devastators had managed to distract the Japanese so that they were unprepared when SBDs then came screaming out of the sky on carriers crowded with aircraft loaded with bombs and fuel for a counterstrike. The carriers AKAGI, KAGA, and SORYU were mortally wounded. The carrier HIRYU, which had been steaming separately, launched an attack which mortally wounded the YORKTOWN, only to be then hit by SBDs and chewed up so badly that it had to be scuttled the next day. The day after that, 6 June, Dauntlesses also sank the cruiser MIKUMA.

The US Navy had scored the biggest upset victory in the service's history, with an inferior force inflicting a staggering defeat on a superior one, sinking almost half of the IJN's carrier tonnage. The YORKTOWN was lost, but over the long run the Americans could make good their losses far more easily than the Japanese. The Japanese offensive across the Pacific had finally lost its momentum, though the Americans had a year of more of hard fighting ahead of them before the momentum built up in their favor.

* The SBD played a crucial role at Midway, and would have paid for itself just with that battle alone. However, although the Dauntless was a somewhat antiquated design, in particular lacking in performance and with light machine-gun armament, it was rugged as well as effective, and Navy and Marine flight crews acquired an affinity for it. It was somewhat noisy and drafty to fly, but it handled well.

The virtues of the "Slow But Deadly" Dauntless seemed to more than make up for its defects, and though it was to be replaced by the Curtiss SB2C Helldiver, the Helldiver proved a very troublesome aircraft and the Dauntless would hang on in service much longer than anyone expected. It served with distinction in the fight for Guadalcanal, beginning in August 1942, and in the invasion of North Africa, Operation TORCH, in November 1942. The Dauntless would also fly in an operation against Nazi installations in Norway in October 1943, but otherwise its further operations against the Germans would be in the antisubmarine warfare role, carrying depth charges.

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[4] SBD-4 / SBD-5 / SBD-6

* Further variants of the Dauntless were produced. The SBD-4 was very similar to the SBD-3 but featured a 24 volt DC electrical system, replacing the older 12 volt DC system. The updated power system was intended to support improved avionics, including navigation gear and the ASB longwave radar, with a Yagi "fishbone"-style antenna under each wing. Production constraints on the ASB meant that early SBD-4s were not delivered with radar, being refitted with it in the field. The SBD-4 also featured a new Hamilton Standard constant-speed variable propeller. The old spinner was no longer fitted, it having been often removed from Dauntlesses in the field anyway. The Navy and Marines received 780 SBD-4s, with deliveries beginning in October 1942.

* The SBD-5 was the definitive Dauntless model, featuring a further uprated Wright R-1820-60 Cyclone engine with 890 kW (1,200 HP), with a modified cowling that eliminated the carburetor intake scoop in the upper lip. A second, very noticeable change was the replacement of the old telescopic sight, which tended to fog up in rapid dives, with a modern reflector sight. Due to an increase in empty weight, the additional power didn't result in a significant increase in performance. The additional weight also meant less range, but the SBD-5 featured "wet" wing pylons to allow it to carry an external tank with a capacity of 220 liters (58 US gallons) on each wing, instead of a bomb or depth charge. 

   DOUGLAS SBD-5 DAUNTLESS:
 _____________________   _________________   ___________________

 spec                    metric              english
 _____________________   _________________   ___________________

 wingspan                12.66 meters        41 feet 6.5 inches
 wing area               30.2 sq_meters      325 sq_feet
 length                  10.09 meters        33 feet 1.5 inches
 height                  4.14 meters         13 feet 7 inches

 empty weight            2,963 kilograms     6,533 pounds
 max loaded weight       4,854 kilograms     10,700 pounds

 maximum speed           406 KPH             252 MPH / 220 KT
 service ceiling         7,955 meters        26,100 feet
 range                   1,794 kilometers    1,115 MI / 970 NMI
 _____________________   _________________   ___________________

The Navy obtained 2,965 SBD-5s. Although the Dauntless was seen as clearly past its prime, with the lack of folding wings being a severe sort point for carrier operations, when US Navy began to obtain new carriers in mid-1943 to conduct offensive operations against Japan's Pacific empire, the Dauntless was at the forefront, and would remain so into 1944, with its swan song in full carrier operations being the invasion of the Marianas in June 1944. The Dauntless would continue to fight from land bases in a secondary role to the end of the war.

By mid-1943, the general color pattern for a Dauntless was three-color, with light gray underneath, along with medium and light blue gray on top. National insignia featured a red outline for a time, but this scheme didn't work out and was quickly abandoned. Dauntlesses flying on Atlantic patrol were painted flat white with dark gull gray patterning topside. Some pictures survive of Dauntlesses in overall dark blue, a common US Navy color scheme late in the war.

* The SBD-6 was the last production variant of the Dauntless, and featured a further uprated R-1820-66 engine with 1,010 kW (1,350 HP) as well as improved fuel tanks. A total of 450 were produced, with the very last SBD delivered in 1944. The Dauntless was seen as so obsolescent by that time that the SBD-6 wasn't even sent to combat zones, being used for coastal patrol, training, and in the hack role. The Dauntless was quickly withdrawn from Navy and Marine service after the war.

Some sources indicate that small numbers of Dauntlesses were either converted or built as photo-reconnaissance machines, with the designations of "SBD-1P", "SBD-2P", "SBD-3P", and "SBD-4P". However, clear details of these machines are lacking.

BACK_TO_TOP

[5] OTHER DAUNTLESS USERS

* The Dauntless was used by other air services, but somehow failed to achieve the distinctions made by Navy and Marine SBDs.

The US Army Air Forces (USAAF) took note of the success of the German Ju-87 Stuka dive bomber during the Nazi conquest of France in the spring of 1940, and decided to obtain dive bombers of their own. The Dauntless seemed like it could do the job in the short term, and so the USAAF ordered 78 SBD-3s with arresting hook removed and a bigger, pneumatic rear tire. They were designated "A-24 Banshee" and delivered in the last half of 1941. USAAF crews never developed good rapport with the aircraft and it suffered badly in combat with Japanese fighters. It was withdrawn from combat before the end of 1942 and used for training.

The USAAF did obtain later versions of the Dauntless, however, including 170 modified SBD-4s as "A-24As" and 615 SBD-5s as "A-24Bs". Although the A-24A and A-24B didn't see combat with the USAAF, 60 of the A-24Bs ended up being passed on to Marine service as "SBD-5As". Ironically, despite the Air Force's lack of enthusiasm for the type, it remained in service until 1950. Some sources claim a single A-24A was converted into a target drone, with a single A-24B converted into a drone controller, but once again details are unclear. Typical USAAF colors for the A-24 were light gray on the bottom and olive drab on top.

* The British were provided with nine SBD-5s for evaluation, which were designated "Dauntless Mark I". However, neither the British Royal Air Force nor the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm were very interested in dive bombers, and though the evaluation was extensive, nothing came of it, the conclusion being that the Dauntless was vulnerable and tiring to fly.

The Royal New Zealand Air Force received 18 SBD-3s and 23 SDB-4s, and did use them successfully in combat in the South Pacific. The Free French used about 80 SBD-5s and A-24Bs as trainers and close-support aircraft. The French Dauntlesses would be the last of the type to see combat, operating during the Indochina War off the carrier ARROMANCHES. The French Navy removed the Dauntless from combat status in 1949, but the SBD was still operated in the training role until 1953.

The Mexican Air Force operated a handful of Dauntlesses for patrol, and was the last military organization to fly the type, removing it from service in 1959. A few were flown in civilian hands for a time, with the excellent handling of the Dauntless appreciated by sport pilots. A number survive as static displays and at least one is still flying on the airshow circuit.

* The following table gives Dauntless variants and production: 

   variant  built   notes
 ______________________________________________________________________

 XSBD-1       1   Initial prototype.
 SBD-1       57   Initial variant.
 SBD-2       87   Increased fuel supply.
 SBD-3      584   Armor, self-sealing tanks, R-1820-53 engine.
 SBD-4      780   24 volt system.
 SBD-5    2,965   Uprated R-1820-60 engine, ASB radar, reflector sight.
 SBD-5A       -   60 USAAF A-24Bs passed back to the USMC.
 SBD-6      450   Uprated R-1820-66 engine.

          4,924   Total SBD production.

 A-24        78   USAAF SBD-3s with no carrier gear & fat rear tire.
 A-24A      170   USAAF SBD-4s with no carrier gear & fat rear tire.
 A-24B      615   USAAF SBD-5s with no carrier gear & fat rear tire.

            863   Total A-24 production.
 ______________________________________________________________________

          5,787   TOTAL DAUNTLESS PRODUCTION
 ______________________________________________________________________

While the Dauntless could not be described as one of the best aircraft of World War II in the technical sense, it definitely had its virtues, and its contributions to Allied victory were considerable. Its place in the history books is thoroughly deserved.

BACK_TO_TOP

(www.vectorsite.net)
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Courage & Compassion: The Legacy of the Bielski Brothers (The Defiance)


During World War II, three brothers, Tuvia, Asael and Zus Bielski, led a Jewish partisan group in Western Belarus. This unique unit, or, in Russian, otriad, saved over 1,200 Jews from the ghettos of Novogrudok and Lida and the surrounding countryside. Partisans were underground resistance fighters, often conducting sabotage activities and guerilla warfare. While the great majority of partisan groups in World War II sought to fight the Germans, the Bielski brothers cared more about preserving the lives of as many Jews as possible. For more than two years, the Bielski brothers commanded their partisan unit in the Belarusian forests. Their actions in saving Jews during extreme danger stand as a monument to courage and compassion. The Bielski brothers are upstanders, individuals willing to stand up for those in need or who put their own lives in danger on behalf of others.

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SB2C Helldiver

SB2C Helldiver
A-25 Shrike
Curtiss SB2C Helldiver
Role Dive bomber
National origin United States
Manufacturer Curtiss
Fairchild (Canada) (SBF)
Canadian Car & Foundry (SBW)
First flight 18 December 1940
Introduced 11 November 1943
Retired 1959 (Italian Air Force)
Primary users United States Navy
United States Army Air Force
French Air Force
Royal Thai Air Force
Produced 1943–1945
Number built 7,140

The Curtiss SB2C Helldiver was a carrier-based dive bomber aircraft produced for the United States Navy during World War II. It replaced the Douglas SBD Dauntless in US Navy service. Despite its size, the SB2C was much faster than the SBD it replaced. Crew nicknames for the aircraft included the Big-Tailed Beast (or just the derogatory Beast),[1] Two-Cee and Son-of-a-Bitch 2nd Class (after its designation and partly because of its reputation for having difficult handling characteristics).[2]

Although production problems persisted throughout its combat service, pilots soon changed their minds about the potency of the Helldiver.[3]

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Design and development

Curtiss XSB2C Helldiver prototype on its maiden flight
SB2Cs in tricolor scheme (front) on the flight deck of USS Yorktown in 1943.
VB-17 SB2C-1 which lost its tail while landing on USS Bunker Hill in 1943.
An SB2C Helldiver failed to catch the wire on landing and hit the first barrier, nose-diving into the deck (USS Hornet, 3 July 1944).

The Helldiver was developed to replace the Douglas SBD Dauntless; it was a much larger aircraft able to operate from the latest aircraft carriers of the time and carry a considerable array of armament and featured an internal bomb bay that reduced drag when carrying heavy ordnance. Saddled with demanding requirements set forth by both the U.S. Marines and United States Army Air Forces, the manufacturer incorporated features of a "multi-role" aircraft into the design.[4]

The Model XB2C-1 prototype initially suffered teething problems connected to its R-2600 engine and 3-bladed propeller; further concerns included structural weaknesses, poor handling, directional instability and bad stall characteristics. The first prototype flew in December 1940. After the prototype crashed in February 1941, Curtiss was asked to rebuild it with revised structures and shapes. This second prototype version was also lost when in December 1941 the Helldiver pulled out of a dive and the starboard wing and tailplane failed catastrophically.

Large-scale production had already been ordered on 29 November 1940, but a large number of modifications were specified for the production model. The size of the fin and rudder was enlarged, fuel capacity was increased, self-sealing fuel tanks added and the fixed armament was doubled to four 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in the wings, compared with the prototype's two cowling guns. The SB2C-2 was built with larger fuel tanks, improving its range considerably.

The program suffered so many delays that the Grumman TBF Avenger entered service before the Helldiver, even though the Avenger had begun its development two years later. Nevertheless, production tempo accelerated with production at Columbus, Ohio and two Canadian factories: Fairchild Aircraft Ltd. (Canada) which produced a total of 300, designated XSBF-l, SBF-l, SBF-3 and SBF-4E, while Canadian Car and Foundry built 894 examples designated SBW-l, SBW-3, SBW-4, SBW-4E and SBW-5, these models being respectively equivalent to their Curtiss-built counterparts. A total of 7140 SB2Cs were produced in World War II.[5]

[edit] Operational history

The large number (literally thousands) of modifications and changes on the production line meant that the Curtiss Helldiver did not enter combat until 11 November 1943 with VB-17 on the USS Bunker Hill, when they attacked the Japanese-held port of Rabaul on the island of New Britain, north of Papua New Guinea. Even though the Helldiver entered U.S. Naval service, it still had such structural problems that the aircraft crews were forbidden to dive bomb (one of its main tasks) in clean configuration. The SB2C-1 could deploy slats mechanically linked with undercarriage actuation extended from the outer third of the wing leading edge to aid lateral control at low speeds. The early prognosis of the "Beast" was unfavourable as it was strongly disliked by aircrews because it was much bigger and heavier than the SBD it replaced.[6]

The litany of faults that the Helldiver bore included the fact that it was underpowered, had a shorter range than the SBD, was equipped with an unreliable electrical system and was often poorly manufactured. The Curtis-Electric propeller and the complex hydraulic system had frequent maintenance problems.[7]

The problems were largely solved by the time SB2C-4 made its appearance. The aircrew eventually began to appreciate the aircraft's ability to keep up with escort fighters, to easily carry a heavier bomb load, and to sortie over a longer distance. The Helldivers would participate in battles over Marianas, Leyte (partly responsible for sinking the Musashi), Taiwan, and Okinawa (in the sinking of the Yamato).

An oddity of the SB2Cs with 1942 to 1943-style tricolor camouflage was that the undersides of the outer wing panels carried dark topside camouflage because the undersurfaces were visible from above when the wings were folded.

Postwar, surplus aircraft were sold to the navies of France, Italy, Greece, Portugal and Thailand.

[edit] Non-naval service

Curtiss SB2C Helldiver during takeoff.

Built at Curtiss' St. Louis plant, 900 aircraft were ordered by the USAAF under the designation A-25A Shrike.[8] The first 10 aircraft had folding wings, while the remainder of the production order deleted this feature. Many other changes distinguished the A-25A including larger main wheels, a pneumatic tail wheel, ring and bead gunsight, longer exhaust stubs and other Army specified radio equipment. By later 1943 when the A-25A was being introduced, the USAAF no longer had a role for the dive bomber. After offering the Shrike to Australia, only 10 were accepted before the Royal Australian Air Force rejected the remainder of the order, forcing the USAAF to send 410 to U.S. Marines. The A-25As were converted to SB2C-1 standard but the Marine SB2C-1 variant never saw combat, being utilized primarily as trainers. The remaining A-25As were similarly employed as trainers and target tugs.[8]

A comparable scenario accompanied the Helldiver's service with the British. A total of 26 aircraft (out of 450 ordered) were delivered to the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm, where they were known as the Helldiver I. After unsatisfactory tests that pinpointed "appalling handling", none of the British Helldivers were used operationally.[9]

[edit] Variants

XSB2C-1
Prototype powered by a 1,700 hp (1,268 kW) R-2600-8 engine
SB2C-1
Production version for United States Navy with four 0.50 in (12.7 mm) wing guns and one 0.30 in (7.62 mm) dorsal gun, 200 built.
SB2C-1A
Original designation for United States Army Air Corps version which became A-25A later used for 410 A-25As transferred to the United States Marine Corps.
SB2C-1C
SB2C-1 with four 20 mm (0.79 in) wing cannons and hydraulically operated flaps, 778 built.
XSB2C-2
One SB2C-1 fitted with twin floats in 1942.
SB2C-2
Production float plane version, 287 cancelled and not built.
XSB2C-3
One SB2C-1 re-engined with a 1,900 hp (1,417 kW) R-2600-20.
SB2C-3
As SB2C-1 re-engined with a 1,900 hp (1,417 kW) R-2600-20 and four-bladed propeller, 1,112 built.
S2BC-3E
SB2C-3s fitted with APS-4 radar.
SB2C-4
SB2C-1 but fitted with wing racks for eight 5 in (127 mm) rockets or 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs, 2,045 built.
SB2C-4E
SB2C-4s fitted with APS-4 radar.
XSB2C-5
Two SB2C-4s converted as prototypes for -5 variant.
SB2C-5
SB2C-4 with increased fuel capacity, 970 built (2,500 cancelled)
XSB2C-6
Two SB2C-1Cs fitted with 2,100 hp (1,566 kW) R-2600-22 engine and increased fuel capacity.
SBF-1
Canadian built version of the SB2C-1, 50 built by Fairchild-Canada
SBF-3
Canadian built version of the SB2C-3, 150 built by Fairchild-Canada.
SBF-4E
Canadian built version of the SB2C-4E, 100 built by Fairchild-Canada.
SBW-1
Canadian built version of the SB2C-1, 38 built by Canadian Car & Foundry company.
SBW-1B
Canadian built version for lend-lease to the Royal Navy as the Helldiver I, 28 aircraft built by Canadian Car & Foundry company.
SBW-3
Canadian built version of the SB2C-3, 413 built by Canadian Car & Foundry company.
SBW-4E
Canadian built version of the SB2C-4E, 270 built by Canadian Car & Foundry company.
U.S. Army Air Force A-25 Shrike in flight.
SBW-5
Canadian-built version of the SB2C-5, 85 built (165 cancelled) by the Canadian Car & Foundry company.
A-25A Shrike
United States Army Air Corps version without arrester gear or folding wings and equipment changed, 900 built
Helldiver I
Royal Navy designation for 28 Canadian-built SBW-1Bs

[edit] Operators

Australia
France
A preserved Greek SB2C-4.
Greece
Italy
Portugal
Delivery of an SB2C-5 to Thailand in 1951.
Thailand
United Kingdom
United States

[edit] Survivors

Curtiss SB2C Helldiver (Commemorative Air Force)
  • One SB2C Helldiver is still flying. Owned by the Commemorative Air Force, this late-production SB2C-5 (BuNo. 83589) built in 1945 is based in Graham, Texas and makes frequent air show appearances. In 1982, it experienced engine failure and a hard emergency landing that caused extensive damage; volunteers of the CAF put in thousands of man-hours and spent in excess of $200,000 to restore the aircraft to flying condition once more.

Other surviving airframes include

[edit] Specifications (SB2C Helldiver)

General characteristics

  • Crew: Two, pilot and radio operator/gunner
  • Length: 36 ft 9 in (11.2 m)
  • Wingspan: 49 ft 9 in (15.2 m)
  • Height: 14 ft 9 in (4.5 m)
  • Wing area: 422 ft² (39.2 m²)
  • Empty weight: 10,114 lb (4,588 kg)
  • Loaded weight: 13,674 lb (6,202 kg)
  • Max takeoff weight: 16,800 lb (7,600 kg)
  • Powerplant: 1× Wright R-2600 Cyclone radial engine, 1,900 hp (1,400 kW)

Performance

Armament

  • 2 × 20 mm (.79 in) cannon in the wings
  • 2 × 0.30 in (7.62 mm) M1919 Browning machine guns in the rear cockpit
  • Internal bay: 2,000 lb (900 kg) of bombs or 1 × Mark 13-2 torpedo
  • Underwing hardpoints: 500 lb (225 kg) of bombs each
(Wikipedia)
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Minggu, 06 September 2009

Katyushas of World War II

Katyusha rocket launchers were mounted on many platforms during World War II, including on trucks, artillery tractors, tanks, and armoured trains, as well as on naval and riverine vessels as assault support weapons.

The design was relatively simple, consisting of racks of parallel rails on which rockets were mounted, with a folding frame to raise the rails to launch position. Each truck had between 14 and 48 launchers. The 132-mm diameter M-13 rocket of the BM-13 system was 180 centimetres (70.9 in) long, 13.2 centimetres (5.2 in) in diameter and weighed 42 kilograms (92 lb). Initially, the caliber was 130 mm, but the caliber was changed (first the designation, and then the actual size), to avoid confusing them with regular artillery shells[3]. It was propelled by a solid nitrocellulose-based propellant of tubular shape, arranged in a steel-case rocket engine with a single central nozzle at the bottom end. The rocket was stabilised by cruciform fins of pressed sheet steel. The warhead, either fragmentation, high-explosive or shaped-charge, weighed around 22 kg (48 lb). The range of the rockets was about 5.4 kilometres (3.4 mi). Later, 82-mm diameter M-8 and 310-mm diameter M-31 rockets were also developed.

The weapon is less accurate than conventional artillery guns, but is extremely effective in saturation bombardment, and was particularly feared by German soldiers. A battery of four BM-13 launchers could fire a salvo in 7–10 seconds that delivered 4.35 tons of high explosives over a four-hectare (10 acres) impact zone.[2] With an efficient crew, the launchers could redeploy to a new location immediately after firing, denying the enemy the opportunity for counterbattery fire. Katyusha batteries were often massed in very large numbers to create a shock effect on enemy forces. The weapon's disadvantage was the long time it took to reload a launcher, in contrast to conventional guns which could sustain a continuous low rate of fire.

BM-13N Katyusha on a Lend-Lease Studebaker US6 truck, at the Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Moscow

Reloading a BM-13

An M13 rocket for the Katyusha launcher on display in Musée de l'Armée

[edit] Development

BM-31-12 on ZIS-12 at the Museum on Sapun Mountain, Sevastopol, Ukraine

In June 1938, the Soviet Jet Propulsion Research Institute (RNII) in Leningrad was authorized by the Main Artillery Directorate (GAU) to develop a multiple rocket launcher for the RS-132 aircraft rocket (RS for Reaktivnyy Snaryad, 'rocket-powered shell'). I. Gvay led a design team in Chelyabinsk, Russia, which built several prototype launchers firing the modified 132mm M-132 rockets over the sides of ZiS-5 trucks. These proved unstable, and V.N. Galkovskiy proposed mounting the launch rails longitudinally. In August 1939, the result was the BM-13 (BM stands for Boyevaya Mashina, 'combat vehicle' for M-13 rockets).[1]

The first large-scale testing of the rocket launchers took place at the end of 1938, when 233 rounds of various types were used. A salvo of rockets could completely straddle a target at a range of 5,500 metres (3.4 mi). But the artillery branch was not fond of the Katyusha, because it took up to 50 minutes to load and fire 24 rounds, while a conventional howitzer could fire 95 to 150 rounds in the same time.[citation needed] Testing with various rockets was conducted through 1940, and the BM-13-16 with launch rails for sixteen rockets was authorized for production. Only forty launchers were built before Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941.[4]

After their success in the first month of the war, mass production was ordered and the development of other models proceeded. The Katyushas were inexpensive and could be manufactured in light industrial installations which did not have the heavy equipment to build conventional artillery gun barrels.[2] By the end of 1942, 3,237 Katyusha launchers of all types had been built, and by the end of the war total production reached about 10,000.[6]

Postwar Katyusha on a ZiL-151 truck

The truck-mounted Katyushas were installed on ZiS-6 6×4 trucks, as well as the two-axle ZiS-5 and ZiS-5V. In 1941, a small number of BM-13 launchers were mounted on STZ-5 artillery tractors. A few were also tried on KV tank chassis as the KV-1K, but this was a needless waste of heavy armour. Starting in 1942, they were also mounted on various British, Canadian and U.S. Lend-Lease trucks, in which case they were sometimes referred to as BM-13S. The cross-country performance of the Studebaker US6 2-1/2 ton truck was so good that it became the GAU's standard mounting in 1943, designated BM-13N (Normalizovanniy, 'standardized'), and more than 1,800 of this model were manufactured by the end of World War II.[7] After World War II, BM-13s were based on Soviet-built ZiL-151 trucks.

The 82mm BM-8 was approved in August 1941, and deployed as the BM-8-36 on truck beds and BM-8-24 on T-40 and T-60 light tank chassis. Later these were also installed on GAZ-67 jeeps as the BM-8-8, and on the larger Studebaker trucks as the BM-8-48.[2] In 1942, the team of scientists Leonid Shvarts, Moisei Komissarchik and engineer Yakov Shor would receive the Stalin prize for the development of the BM-8-48.[8][9]

Based on the M-13, the M-30 rocket was developed in 1942. Its bulbous warhead required it to be fired from a frame, called the M-30-4, instead of a launch rail. In 1944 it became the basis for the BM-31-12 truck-mounted launcher.[2]

[edit] Variants

A list of some implementations of the Katyusha follows:[10]

Caliber (mm) ↓ Tubes ↓ Weapon name ↓ Chassis ↓
82 mm 8 BM-8-8 Willys MB Jeep
82 mm 24 BM-8-24 T-40 light tank, T-60 light tank
82 mm 48 BM-8-48 ZiS-6 truck, Studebaker US6 U3 truck
132 mm 16 BM-13-16 International K7 "Inter" truck, International M-5-5-318 truck, Fordson WO8T truck, Ford/Marmon-Herrington HH6-COE4 truck, Chevrolet G-7117 truck, Studebaker US6 U3 truck, GMC CCKW-352M-13 truck
300 mm 12 BM-31-12 Studebaker US6 U3 truck

[edit] Combat history

BM-13 battery fire, during the Battle of Berlin, April 1945, with metal blast covers pulled over the windshields

The multiple rocket launchers were top secret in the beginning of World War II. A special unit of the NKVD secret police was raised to operate them.[2] On July 7, 1941, an experimental artillery battery of seven launchers was first used in battle at Orsha in Belarus, under the command of Captain Ivan Flyorov, destroying a station with several supply trains, and causing massive German Army casualties. Following the success, the Red Army organized new Guards Mortar batteries for the support of infantry divisions. A battery's complement was standardized at four launchers. They remained under NKVD control until German Nebelwerfer rocket launchers became common later in the war.[6]

A battery of BM-31 multiple rocket launchers in operation

On August 8, 1941, Stalin ordered the formation of eight Special Guards Mortar regiments under the direct control of the General Headquarters Reserve (Stavka-VGK). Each regiment comprised three battalions of three batteries, totalling 36 BM-13 or BM-8 launchers. Independent Guards Mortar battalions were also formed, comprising 36 launchers in three batteries of twelve. By the end of 1941, there were eight regiments, 35 independent battalions, and two independent batteries in service, holding a total of 554 launchers.[11]

In June 1942 Heavy Guards Mortar battalions were formed around the new M-30 static rocket launch frames, consisting of 96 launchers in three batteries. In July, a battalion of BM-13s was added to the establishment of a tank corps.[12] In 1944, the BM-31 was used in Motorized Heavy Guards Mortar battalions of 48 launchers. In 1943, Guards Mortar brigades, and later divisions, were formed equipped with static launchers.[11]

By the end of 1942, 57 regiments were in service—together with the smaller independent battalions, this was the equivalent of 216 batteries: 21% BM-8 light launchers, 56% BM-13, and 23% M-30 heavy launchers. By the end of the war, the equivalent of 518 batteries were in service.[11]

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